alexander the great bloodline today

Alexander the Great (356–323 BC) died suddenly at the age of 32, leaving no apparent heir or appointed successor. Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine, philosophy, morals, religion, logic, and art. Alexander bloodline is ridiculous really. Taking advantage of this power vacuum, Chandragupta Maurya (referred to in Greek sources as "Sandrokottos"), of relatively humble origin, took control of the Punjab, and with that power base proceeded to conquer the Nanda Empire. At this point, his army refused to continue further into India, exhausted and discouraged by heavy rains. He had his cousin, the former Amyntas IV, executed. The Descendants of Alexander the Great of Macedon - The arguments and evidence that today's Macedonians are descendants of the ancient Macedonians. [16] Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life included Alexander's campaign historian Callisthenes; Alexander's generals Ptolemy and Nearchus; Aristobulus, a junior officer on the campaigns; and Onesicritus, Alexander's chief helmsman. There, his closest friend and possible lover, Hephaestion, died of illness or poisoning. Was it Veratrum album? [113] However, Alexander's constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians throughout his empire depleted Macedon's strength, greatly weakening it in the years after Alexander, and ultimately led to its subjugation by Rome after the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC).[16]. In 336 B.C.E., at age 20, Alexander became king of Macedonia when a political rival assassinated his father. [29], Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC, and they marched south through Thermopylae, taking it after stubborn resistance from its Theban garrison. [9] He was the son of the king of Macedon, Philip II, and his fourth wife, Olympias, the daughter of Neoptolemus I, king of Epirus. Alexander the Great, king of Macedonia (336–323 BCE), who overthrew the Persian empire, carried Macedonian arms to India, and laid the foundations for the Hellenistic world of territorial kingdoms. He lost another child when Roxana miscarried at Babylon. [49] Alexander spared Arrhidaeus, who was by all accounts mentally disabled, possibly as a result of poisoning by Olympias. When Alexander asked Diogenes what he could do for him, the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a little to the side, as he was blocking the sunlight. [159][160] Natural-cause theories also tend to emphasize that Alexander's health may have been in general decline after years of heavy drinking and severe wounds. Some 40 years of internecine conflict followed his death, as leading generals and members of Alexander’s family vied to control different parts of the vast empire he had built. One common link in this bloodline is Philip of Macedonia (382-336BC),who married Olympias, and their son was Alexander the Great (356-323BC), a tyrant who plundered that key region of Greece, Persia, Syria, Phoenicia, Egypt, Babylon, the former lands of Sumer, and across into India before dying in … (384-322 BCE) Greek scientist and philosopher. [129] Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not before losing many men to the harsh desert. [101], Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him. Legend . "[271], In the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in Alexandria, a quantity of the legendary material coalesced into a text known as the Alexander Romance, later falsely ascribed to Callisthenes and therefore known as Pseudo-Callisthenes. [27], At the age of 16, Alexander's education under Aristotle ended. He appointed Porus as satrap, and added to Porus' territory land that he did not previously own, towards the south-east, up to the Hyphasis (Beas). [254] The resulting syncretism known as Greco-Buddhism influenced the development of Buddhism[citation needed] and created a culture of Greco-Buddhist art. Alexander was born in 356 B.C.E. [85] Darius fled over the mountains to Ecbatana (modern Hamadan) while Alexander captured Babylon. [119][120] Choosing a local helped him control these lands so distant from Greece. These Greco-Buddhist kingdoms sent some of the first Buddhist missionaries to China, Sri Lanka and Hellenistic Asia and Europe (Greco-Buddhist monasticism). On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days. He murdered often, at times indiscriminately. Text on this page is printable and can be used according to our Terms of Service. When Onesicritus read this passage to his patron, Alexander's general and later King Lysimachus reportedly quipped, "I wonder where I was at the time. [279] Later Persian writers associate him with philosophy, portraying him at a symposium with figures such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, in search of immortality. Pausanias writes that Alexander wanted to dig the Mimas mountain (today at the Karaburun area), but he didn't succeed. [189] At the decisive encounter with Darius at Gaugamela, Darius equipped his chariots with scythes on the wheels to break up the phalanx and equipped his cavalry with pikes. Almost immediately after his death in 323 BC, … [12], In his early years, Alexander was raised by a nurse, Lanike, sister of Alexander's future general Cleitus the Black. He never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered. [106], In 334 BC, Alexander the Great donated funds for the completion of the new temple of Athena Polias in Priene, in modern-day western Turkey. [126], As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the Battle of Jaxartes and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. They went on to occupy the city of Elatea, only a few days' march from both Athens and Thebes. In the years following his death, a series of civil wars tore his empire apart, resulting in the establishment of several states ruled by the Diadochi, Alexander's surviving generals and heirs. Demades likened the Macedonian army, after the death of Alexander, to the blinded Cyclops, due to the many random and disorderly movements that it made. [284], In Greek Anthology there are poems referring to Alexander.[285][286]. This would fit with the intended destination of Alexander's funeral cortege. The elephant had gold rings around its tusks and an inscription was on them written in Greek: "Alexander the son of Zeus dedicates Ajax to the Helios" (ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ Ο ΔΙΟΣ ΤΟΝ ΑΙΑΝΤΑ ΤΩΙ ΗΛΙΩΙ). [106][240] The first, and greatest, was Alexandria in Egypt, which would become one of the leading Mediterranean cities. In numbers of troops, ships, and wealth, Alexander's resources Alexander moved to Babylon and made plans to explore the Caspian Sea which Alexander always kept with him. [37] The marriage made Alexander's position as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian. [138][225] This event may have contributed to Alexander's failing health and detached mental state during his final months. [175], During his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion, Alexander began to exhibit signs of megalomania and paranoia. Alexander IV was too young to have ever had any children of his own and so the bloodline of Alexander the great ended there… Alexander the great had no other legitimate children and it is unlikely that he had any illegitimate children because he was on campaign right up until just before his death and he seemed more interested in his boyhood friend (or boyfriend) Hephaestion than his actual wives. Though advised to use diplomacy, Alexander mustered 3,000 Macedonian cavalry and rode south towards Thessaly. [41] However, it appears Philip never intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son. As a young boy, Alexander was taught to read, write, and play the lyre. The Greek cities on the western coast of Anatolia revolted until the news arrived that Philip had been murdered and had been succeeded by his young son Alexander. [251] Koine spread throughout the Hellenistic world, becoming the lingua franca of Hellenistic lands and eventually the ancestor of modern Greek. Philip then returned to Elatea, sending a final offer of peace to Athens and Thebes, who both rejected it. [10] Although Philip had seven or eight wives, Olympias was his principal wife for some time, likely because she gave birth to Alexander. [199] However, his father Philip was Alexander's most immediate and influential role model, as the young Alexander watched him campaign practically every year, winning victory after victory while ignoring severe wounds. Egypt, Babylonia, Persis, Media, Bactria, the Punjab, and the valley of the Indus. [77], When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route to Egypt quickly capitulated. Most of the ancient Persian empire is in modern-day Iran. [91][92][93] Plutarch claims that he ordered his men to put out the fires,[91] but that the flames had already spread to most of the city. [253] Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the ancient Greek religion: the concept of Boddhisatvas is reminiscent of Greek divine heroes,[255] and some Mahayana ceremonial practices (burning incense, gifts of flowers, and food placed on altars) are similar to those practised by the ancient Greeks; however, similar practices were also observed amongst the native Indic culture. Jeanna Sullivan, National Geographic Society, Sarah Appleton, National Geographic Society [116] A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but eventually the Aspasioi lost. Ruled by Hammurabi, restored by Nebuchadrezzar, conquered by Cyrus—this city in the heart of Mesopotamia was both desired and despised, placing it at the center stage of the dawn of history. One example of their legacy is the Olympic Games. His eyes (one blue, one brown) revealed a dewy, feminine quality. [48] He also had two Macedonian princes from the region of Lyncestis killed, but spared a third, Alexander Lyncestes. [13] Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations of these dreams: that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb; or that Alexander's father was Zeus. Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes' favour, but Athens won the contest. The stronghold was heavily fortified and built on a hill, requiring a siege. Also called the Ganga. [280] He then travelled the known world in search of the Water of Life and Immortality, eventually becoming a prophet. [188], At Issus in 333 BC, his first confrontation with Darius, he used the same deployment, and again the central phalanx pushed through. Crossing the river at night, he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalry skirmish. At which Alexander reproachfully insulted over him: "See there," said he, "the man who makes preparations to pass out of Europe into Asia, overturned in passing from one seat to another. During the ensuing Battle of Chaeronea, Philip commanded the right wing and Alexander the left, accompanied by a group of Philip's trusted generals. The Itinerarium Alexandri is a 4th-century Latin Itinerarium which describes Alexander the Great's campaigns. Would you like to support the mission of Greece High Definition? [256][258][259] The Yavanajataka (lit. During Alexander’s campaign against the Achaemenids in the East, Cassander most likely remained in Europe, since his father was serving as regent in Macedon. Thus, in Bactria and Sogdiana, Alexander successfully used his javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements, while massing his cavalry at the center. [80] He was pronounced son of the deity Amun at the Oracle of Siwa Oasis in the Libyan desert. Alexander was used by these writers as an example of ruler values such as amicita (friendship) and clementia (clemency), but also iracundia (anger) and cupiditas gloriae (over-desire for glory). Perhaps taking his summons to Babylon as a death sentence,[148] and having seen the fate of Parmenion and Philotas,[149] Antipater purportedly arranged for Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas, who was Alexander's wine-pourer. Alexander made his army extreamly smart and advanced by utilizing engineers and introducing longspears into his army. [202] He had a calmer side—perceptive, logical, and calculating. According to Curtius, "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubble. [276], The figure of Dhul-Qarnayn (literally "the Two-Horned One") mentioned in the Quran is believed by scholars to be based on later legends of Alexander. At a council of the League of Corinth, he was chosen as the commander of a military invasion of Asia. [105] This behaviour cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen. He spent most of his reign on a military campaign through northeast Africa and southwestern Asia. [16] Of these, Arrian is generally considered the most reliable, given that he used Ptolemy and Aristobulus as his sources, closely followed by Diodorus. [277] In the Shahnameh, Alexander's first journey is to Mecca to pray at the Kaaba. By the time of his death, he had conquered the entire. [c] Military academies throughout the world still teach his tactics. [133] Meanwhile, upon his return to Persia, Alexander learned that guards of the tomb of Cyrus the Great in Pasargadae had desecrated it, and swiftly executed them. Any other answer would cause the mermaid to turn into a raging Gorgon who would drag the ship to the bottom of the sea, all hands aboard. After Philip's assassination in 336 BC, he succeeded his father to the throne and inherited a strong kingdom and an experienced army. This so irritated Alexander, that throwing one of the cups at his head, "You villain," said he, "what, am I then a bastard?" The correct answer is "He is alive and well and rules the world!" © 1996 - 2021 National Geographic Society. There is not any sure way to know has Alexander the Great descendants still in nowadays or not. [59] While the other cities again hesitated, Thebes decided to fight. He then stormed the pass of the Persian Gates (in the modern Zagros Mountains) which had been blocked by a Persian army under Ariobarzanes and then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury.[87]. [65][66] At first, all went well. [167][168], Pompey, Julius Caesar and Augustus all visited the tomb in Alexandria, where Augustus, allegedly, accidentally knocked the nose off. Photo: Turiqsulemani, wikipedia. Alexander’s line was completely extinguished, 14 years after his death. Their works are lost, but later works based on these original sources have survived. [65][66], Taking over the invasion project of Philip II, Alexander's army crossed the Hellespont in 334 BC with approximately 48,100 soldiers, 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38,000,[59] drawn from Macedon and various Greek city-states, mercenaries, and feudally raised soldiers from Thrace, Paionia, and Illyria. [63] Greeks used the word Margites to describe fool and useless people, on account of the Margites. Cassander was a King of Macedon who lived during the 4 th century BC. His campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between East and West, and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed to Greek civilization and influence. [123] Philostratus the Elder in the Life of Apollonius of Tyana writes that in the army of Porus there was an elephant who fought brave against Alexander's army and Alexander dedicated it to the Helios (Sun) and named it Ajax, because he thought that a so great animal deserved a great name. Campaigning against the Greek city of Perinthus, Alexander is reported to have saved his father's life. [215], Alexander married three times: Roxana, daughter of the Sogdian nobleman Oxyartes of Bactria,[216][217][218] out of love;[219] and the Persian princesses Stateira II and Parysatis II, the former a daughter of Darius III and latter a daughter of Artaxerxes III, for political reasons. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern Kandahar in Afghanistan, and Alexandria Eschate ("The Furthest") in modern Tajikistan. [b] At that point, his empire stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Beas River. This cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it. [273], Alexander features prominently in modern Greek folklore, more so than any other ancient figure. For centuries this light-skinned, pagan people have claimed to be the long-lost descendants of Alexander the Great's world-conquering armies, which invaded this region in the fourth century B.C. [40] Accordingly, Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family friend, Demaratus, who mediated between the two parties. Following the conquest of Anatolia, Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, including those of Issus and Gaugamela. [138][139] Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander, and he ordered the preparation of an expensive funeral pyre in Babylon, as well as a decree for public mourning. [91] Plutarch recounts an anecdote in which Alexander pauses and talks to a fallen statue of Xerxes as if it were a live person: Shall I pass by and leave you lying there because of the expeditions you led against Greece, or shall I set you up again because of your magnanimity and your virtues in other respects? [110] There was also considerable friction between Antipater and Olympias, and each complained to Alexander about the other. Macedon was an Ancient Greek polity. Also, the New Testament was written in the Koine Greek language. [128], Alexander sent much of his army to Carmania (modern southern Iran) with general Craterus, and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus, while he led the rest back to Persia through the more difficult southern route along the Gedrosian Desert and Makran. He eventually turned back at the demand of his homesick troops, dying in Babylon in 323 BC, the city that he planned to establish as his capital, without executing a series of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of Arabia. For other uses, see. [274] One well-known fable among Greek seamen involves a solitary mermaid who would grasp a ship's prow during a storm and ask the captain "Is King Alexander alive?" [248] Alexander sought to insert Greek elements into Persian culture and attempted to hybridize Greek and Persian culture. [280], The Syriac version of the Alexander Romance portrays him as an ideal Christian world conqueror who prayed to "the one true God". [37], At the wedding of Cleopatra, whom Philip fell in love with and married, she being much too young for him, her uncle Attalus in his drink desired the Macedonians would implore the gods to give them a lawful successor to the kingdom by his niece. Please consider making a donation to our site. You cannot download interactives. The cosmopolitan art and mythology of Gandhara (a region spanning the upper confluence of the Indus, Swat and Kabul rivers in modern Pakistan) of the ~3rd century BC to the ~5th century AD are most evident of the direct contact between Hellenistic civilization and South Asia, as are the Edicts of Ashoka, which directly mention the Greeks within Ashoka's dominion as converting to Buddhism and the reception of Buddhist emissaries by Ashoka's contemporaries in the Hellenistic world. Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals, who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements. During this turmoil, the Illyrians invaded Macedonia, only to be repelled by Alexander. The horse refused to be mounted, and Philip ordered it away. The satrapies handed out by Perdiccas at the Partition of Babylon became power bases each general used to bid for power. However, his successors explicitly rejected such policies. As in Tyre, men of military age were put to the sword and the women and children were sold into slavery. Margot Willis, National Geographic Society. Due to the limited nature of the information we have about ancient Egypt, the historical figures that we call key is a more limited group than it would be in contemporary times. Alexander eventually agreed and turned south, marching along the Indus. Marching west into Illyria, Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing the two rulers to flee with their troops. Alexander proceeded to take possession of Syria, and most of the coast of the Levant. The Macedonians were a Greek tribe. [112] Alexander sent back vast sums from his conquest, which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire. Geography, Human Geography, Social Studies, Ancient Civilizations. AR Tetradrachm (25mm, 17.15 g, 1h). [144][175], Perdiccas initially did not claim power, instead suggesting that Roxane's baby would be king, if male; with himself, Craterus, Leonnatus, and Antipater as guardians. Alexander the Great claimed the throne and killed his rivals so he can be the rightful ruler of the powerful kingdom and the commander of a highly trained army at the age of 20. [181] Nevertheless, Perdiccas had read the notebooks containing Alexander's last plans read out to the Macedonian troops in Babylon, who voted not to carry them out.[60]. Alexander the Great, also known as Alexander III of Macedon, was the king of Macedonia from 336 to 323 B.C. [6] He is often ranked among the most influential people in history. This ensured that Alexander would not be outflanked, while his phalanx, armed with long pikes, had a considerable advantage over the Persians' scimitars and javelins. The so-called "Alexander Sarcophagus", discovered near Sidon and now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, is so named not because it was thought to have contained Alexander's remains, but because its bas-reliefs depict Alexander and his companions fighting the Persians and hunting. He founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most notably Alexandria in Egypt. [121] Alexander founded two cities on opposite sides of the Hydaspes river, naming one Bucephala, in honour of his horse, who died around this time. empire that dominated Mesopotamia from about 550 to 330 BCE. [75][76] The men of military age were massacred and the women and children sold into slavery. [33] At Corinth, Philip established a "Hellenic Alliance" (modelled on the old anti-Persian alliance of the Greco-Persian Wars), which included most Greek city-states except Sparta. Athens sued for peace and Alexander pardoned the rebels. "[228] Some modern historians (e.g., Robin Lane Fox) believe not only that Alexander's youthful relationship with Hephaestion was sexual, but that their sexual contacts may have continued into adulthood, which went against the social norms of at least some Greek cities, such as Athens,[229][230] though some modern researchers have tentatively proposed that Macedonia (or at least the Macedonian court) may have been more tolerant of homosexuality between adults. Alexander III of Macedon (Greek: Αλέξανδρος Γʹ ὁ Μακεδών, Aléxandros III ho Makedȏn; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great (Greek: ὁ Μέγας, ho Mégas), was a king (basileus) of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon[a] and a member of the Argead dynasty. Alexander the Great, a Macedonian king, conquered the eastern Mediterranean, Egypt, the Middle East, and parts of Asia in a remarkably short period of time. [214] Thus, rather than megalomania, his behaviour may simply have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and keeping his empire together. [163] Perhaps more likely, the successors may have seen possession of the body as a symbol of legitimacy, since burying the prior king was a royal prerogative. [124], East of Porus' kingdom, near the Ganges River, was the Nanda Empire of Magadha, and further east, the Gangaridai Empire of Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent. [60], According to ancient writers Demosthenes called Alexander "Margites" (Greek: Μαργίτης)[61][62][63] and a boy. [256] For example, Greek astronomical instruments dating to the 3rd century BC were found in the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai Khanoum in modern-day Afghanistan,[257] while the Greek concept of a spherical earth surrounded by the spheres of planets eventually supplanted the long-standing Indian cosmological belief of a disc consisting of four continents grouped around a central mountain (Mount Meru) like the petals of a flower. Written by bass player Steve Harris, the song retells Alexander's life. Nestled in the northern tip of India, the isolated village of Bara Bangal has several origin stories -- including from soldiers of Alexander the Great. [60] The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king Agis III in 331 BC, whom Antipater defeated and killed in the battle of Megalopolis. Philip hired Leonidas to train the youth in math, archery, and horsemanship (the training and care of horses). [51], Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the leader of the Amphictyonic League before heading south to Corinth. [57], News then reached Alexander that Cleitus, King of Illyria, and King Glaukias of the Taulantii were in open revolt against his authority. Many of these students would become his friends and future generals, and are often known as the 'Companions'. Even as he watched the city burn, Alexander immediately began to regret his decision. The location of the tomb of Alexander the Great is an enduring mystery. His empire ushered in significant cultural changes in the lands he conquered and changed the course of the region’s history. [195] Lysippos' sculpture, famous for its naturalism, as opposed to a stiffer, more static pose, is thought to be the most faithful depiction. The audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit. [192] Olympias' influence instilled a sense of destiny in him,[198] and Plutarch tells how his ambition "kept his spirit serious and lofty in advance of his years". Later in his childhood, Alexander was tutored by the strict Leonidas, a relative of his mother, and by Lysimachus of Acarnania. [12] During Philip's absence, the Thracian Maedi revolted against Macedonia. Pompey the Great adopted the epithet "Magnus" and even Alexander's anastole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of greatness. [79], Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC, where he was regarded as a liberator. [239], Over the course of his conquests, Alexander founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most of them east of the Tigris. [187] Alexander placed the phalanx at the center and cavalry and archers on the wings, so that his line matched the length of the Persian cavalry line, about 3 km (1.86 mi). The Athenians, led by Demosthenes, voted to seek alliance with Thebes against Macedonia. Fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander's army mutinied at the Hyphasis River (Beas), refusing to march farther east. After the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to Roxana (Raoxshna in Old Iranian) to cement relations with his new satrapies, Alexander turned to the Indian subcontinent. [233], According to Diodorus Siculus, Alexander accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings, but he used it rather sparingly, "not wishing to offend the Macedonians",[234] showing great self-control in "pleasures of the body". Further south, at Halicarnassus, in Caria, Alexander successfully waged his first large-scale siege, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain Memnon of Rhodes and the Persian satrap of Caria, Orontobates, to withdraw by sea. Alexander arranged a double phalanx, with the center advancing at an angle, parting when the chariots bore down and then reforming. Alexander III 'the Great'. [70] At the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordium, Alexander "undid" the hitherto unsolvable Gordian Knot, a feat said to await the future "king of Asia". [4][5] In 334 BC, he invaded the Achaemenid Empire (Persian Empire) and began a series of campaigns that lasted 10 years. Most infamously, Alexander personally killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus, Cleitus the Black, during a violent drunken altercation at Maracanda (modern day Samarkand in Uzbekistan), in which Cleitus accused Alexander of several judgmental mistakes and most especially, of having forgotten the Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle. to murder someone of political importance. Already in his lifetime the subject of fabulous stories, he later became the hero of a full-scale legend. [151][152][153] In a 2014 manuscript in the journal Clinical Toxicology, Schep suggested Alexander's wine was spiked with Veratrum album, and that this would produce poisoning symptoms that match the course of events described in the Alexander Romance. Instead, they supported Alexander's half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus.

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